Urban Planning In Response to Hurricane Katrina
What Happened?
On August 29, 2005 Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans. This hurricane flooded about 80% of the city, and caused city planners to think about what went wrong, and what’s in store for the future. Figure 1 is a flood map and shows the amount of flooding that took place in the city, and where it was the most devastating. The red and orange indicate the least amount of flooding, while the greens and blues are the largest amount (depth) of flooding. There were many areas that were flooded for up to six weeks and some had water as deep as fifteen feet.[1]
The way New Orleans was planned has a great deal to do with the amount of flooding that occurred in this area. One issue with the planning before Hurricane Katrina was that much of the development was under sea level. These areas are the ones that suffered the most from flooding. Before 1900, the residential areas were built on higher ground in case of flooding. These homes were raised on pillars so in case of a flood the water would not damage the house as much. Figure 2 shows a home after Hurricane Katrina that is raised on these pillars to increase height and reduce future flood damage to the house. In these early years, houses were also strategically placed on natural levees in order to prevent major damage if there were a flood. This created densely populated residences on higher ground in order to ensure the safety of the citizens of New Orleans.[2]
On August 29, 2005 Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans. This hurricane flooded about 80% of the city, and caused city planners to think about what went wrong, and what’s in store for the future. Figure 1 is a flood map and shows the amount of flooding that took place in the city, and where it was the most devastating. The red and orange indicate the least amount of flooding, while the greens and blues are the largest amount (depth) of flooding. There were many areas that were flooded for up to six weeks and some had water as deep as fifteen feet.[1]
The way New Orleans was planned has a great deal to do with the amount of flooding that occurred in this area. One issue with the planning before Hurricane Katrina was that much of the development was under sea level. These areas are the ones that suffered the most from flooding. Before 1900, the residential areas were built on higher ground in case of flooding. These homes were raised on pillars so in case of a flood the water would not damage the house as much. Figure 2 shows a home after Hurricane Katrina that is raised on these pillars to increase height and reduce future flood damage to the house. In these early years, houses were also strategically placed on natural levees in order to prevent major damage if there were a flood. This created densely populated residences on higher ground in order to ensure the safety of the citizens of New Orleans.[2]
Figure 2
http://assets.dnainfo.com/generated/photo/2013/02/elevated-home-new-orleans-13613842862640.jpg/image640x480.jpg
New Orleans was originally a swampy area. City officials wished there was a way to get rid of these swamps in order to make the most of their land. In 1899, an engineer named Baldwin Wood created a pump that could take an extensive amount of water and transfer it to the lake.[2] Eventually homes were built in the areas that were once swamps. In the 1950s is when the construction of these new homes really took off due to a large demand by the G.I.s that were returning from WWII. “Between 1947 and 1964, there were more than 1.2 million new houses built in America per year”.[2] Also, in the 20th century, there was a population boom to Louisiana in general. More people were moving to New Orleans which called for more housing. In 1919, about 90% of the 339,000 residents lived above sea level, in contrast to the 38% of residents in 2000.[3] In New Orleans, these new homes were spread out compared to the older homes. The difference in the residences built before 1900, and after could be seen by what parts of the city were flooded. The Garden District and the French Quarter, which were built in the early years of New Orleans were already dry by August 31, 2005, while the areas that were once a swamp in the eastern part of the city took weeks to dry up. Another reason for all the flooding was that the levees that were supposed to protect the city broke. These levees were implemented by the Corps of Engineers in 1965 in response to another devastating hurricane named Betsy. The Corps of Engineers constructed 350 miles of levees and flood walls, which unfortunately were not complete by the time Hurricane Katrina hit.[3]
Immediate Response:
Many residents of New Orleans may not feel as if there were any immediate response to Katrina because of the slow aid that come to the people left in the city during the hurricane, but this is not so. Planning took place immediately after disaster stuck. One immediate, and short-term response to Hurricane Katrina was the enactment of temporary housing also known as “Katrina Cottages” as seen in Figure 3. These were mobile homes provided by FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency). In Louisiana, 64,150 households were living in these temporary homes.
Some immediate response that took place for transportation was to figure out what areas needed the most public transportation right away. Planners needed to take into consideration how many residents were still in the area, and where they were located. First, they looked at the whole city, then looked into the smaller neighborhoods. Many streetcars and buses were lost or destroyed in the flood, so the Regional Transit Authority (RTA) used those few that had survived, and also got some donated from other cities. One obstacle for the RTA was that as with the residents, many of their employees were also evacuated and displaced with the hurricane and flooding.
Many non-profit, church, and private organizations were quick to respond to the disaster and an effort to begin rebuilding. Some of these included Habitat for Humanity, the Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans, and Rebuilding Together New Orleans. These groups had many volunteers to help them with the work. These groups were quick to respond compared to government agencies because they did not have to wait for funding or approval from those in charge. Getting funding from FEMA and other government agencies took a while, as did getting approval for city plans.
Many residents of New Orleans may not feel as if there were any immediate response to Katrina because of the slow aid that come to the people left in the city during the hurricane, but this is not so. Planning took place immediately after disaster stuck. One immediate, and short-term response to Hurricane Katrina was the enactment of temporary housing also known as “Katrina Cottages” as seen in Figure 3. These were mobile homes provided by FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency). In Louisiana, 64,150 households were living in these temporary homes.
Some immediate response that took place for transportation was to figure out what areas needed the most public transportation right away. Planners needed to take into consideration how many residents were still in the area, and where they were located. First, they looked at the whole city, then looked into the smaller neighborhoods. Many streetcars and buses were lost or destroyed in the flood, so the Regional Transit Authority (RTA) used those few that had survived, and also got some donated from other cities. One obstacle for the RTA was that as with the residents, many of their employees were also evacuated and displaced with the hurricane and flooding.
Many non-profit, church, and private organizations were quick to respond to the disaster and an effort to begin rebuilding. Some of these included Habitat for Humanity, the Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans, and Rebuilding Together New Orleans. These groups had many volunteers to help them with the work. These groups were quick to respond compared to government agencies because they did not have to wait for funding or approval from those in charge. Getting funding from FEMA and other government agencies took a while, as did getting approval for city plans.
Long Term Response:
FEMA’s (Federal Emergency Management Agency) response to Hurricane Katrina was the Emergency Support Function #14 (ESF-14). This is a long-term project for recovery, not exclusive to New Orleans, but is a general recovery program that was also enacted in other parts of Louisiana and Florida. This works to bring together multiple entities including local, regional, state, and federal. ESF-14 works to do this by assisting the groups to find recovery funding and technical assistance.[4] One problem with ESF-14 was that it was still in its experimental phase and had only been used twice before. An obstacle in New Orleans was that there was severe damage, not many city employees were still in the area, and there was not much post-disaster planning already in place.[3]
The main long term response after Hurricane Katrina was Mayor Nagin’s Bring New Orleans Back Commission (BNOB). The commission had its first meeting on October 10, 2005. It was made up of 17 members and included; business owners, church leaders, lawyers, and educators. There were several committees within this commission which focused on; city planning, infrastructure, culture, education, health, social services, economic development, and government effectiveness. One part of this plan was to create “green zones” that consisted of the most damaged area. (As shown in Figure 4) This land would be parkland in the future. The neighborhoods most targeted for this parkland were the areas below sea level that are most prone to flooding. The parks would be an area that would catch water when there are floods without damaging any structures. The problem with this is that the people that once lived in those “green” areas would have to find a new place to live, which might possibly not be in New Orleans. At first, the Bring New Orleans Back Commission had a short four month schedule, but it turned out to consist of long term projects.This plan had three distinct approaches to planning the neighborhoods. First, they would look at immediate opportunity areas. Figure 5 has a map of those targeted areas with little flooding. Second, was to plan the neighborhood areas that were most heavily flooded and could possible be the most challenging. Lastly, they would tackle the infill development areas. This consisted of areas with the most potential because there was already blight in the area.[3] This included housing, commercial and industrial zones.
In the BNOB plan, there was a commitment to historic preservation of the historic district in order to maintain the city’s character. The plan stated that funding for this would come from federal and state tax credits. The BNOB plan also asked for different lines of defense against future flooding. This included; regional and coastal wetland restoration, a light rail network to connect to neighboring cities and the airport, parks in all neighborhoods, and “neutral ground” and would also function as open and park spaces.[3] One of the main pressing goals was to create a sustainable future for the city of New Orleans.
In April 2006, the Lambert Plan was launched. Paul Lambert and Shelia Danzey headed the plan, and hired a team of architects and planners to work on housing matters in the city. Paul Lambert used a bottom-up approach to planning that would target distressed neighborhoods.[3] Another plan for New Orleans is the Unified Plan. This plan stated that the city would be rebuilt as it previously was. This includes building in low lying areas that were heavily flooded. There are three major parts that make up the Unified New Orleans Plan. First is that it is unified, hence the name. This means that once all the planning has taken place for each neighborhood, everything will come together in one final document. Next is that it will respect the previous plans already in place (those discussed above). Lastly, government agencies are not part of this process which means it will not have to deal with as much politics.
One big question when discussing redevelopment and rebuilding is funding. This is a major issue that had to be dealt with after Hurricane Katrina. Government money and aid from FEMA did not seem to come in quick enough to really put plans into actions, so private entities helped. One major contributor to rebuilding after Katrina was the Rockerfeller Foundation. This foundation was working with the Greater New Orleans Foundation to help with the relief effort right after Katrina hit. On September 8, 2005 the Rockerfeller Foundation provided $3 million to aid displaced residents.[3] From this donation, the Greater New Orleans Foundation for Katrina Disaster Relief was able to hire planners Donna Fraiche and David Veolker. Later, the Rockerfeller Foundation donated an additional $3.5 million to rebuild. This was a great contribution to the effort because the whole rebuilding process would cost about $7.9 million. With the donations from the Rockerfeller foundation, the Bring New Orleans Back Commission was eventually dismantled. Each plan that was enacted was due to something that was lacking in the previous plans. Planners hoped for the newer plan to solve all the problems, but as we can see this was not the case. One of the major obstacles with rebuilding New Orleans was, and still is finding the funding for the proposed projects.
FEMA’s (Federal Emergency Management Agency) response to Hurricane Katrina was the Emergency Support Function #14 (ESF-14). This is a long-term project for recovery, not exclusive to New Orleans, but is a general recovery program that was also enacted in other parts of Louisiana and Florida. This works to bring together multiple entities including local, regional, state, and federal. ESF-14 works to do this by assisting the groups to find recovery funding and technical assistance.[4] One problem with ESF-14 was that it was still in its experimental phase and had only been used twice before. An obstacle in New Orleans was that there was severe damage, not many city employees were still in the area, and there was not much post-disaster planning already in place.[3]
The main long term response after Hurricane Katrina was Mayor Nagin’s Bring New Orleans Back Commission (BNOB). The commission had its first meeting on October 10, 2005. It was made up of 17 members and included; business owners, church leaders, lawyers, and educators. There were several committees within this commission which focused on; city planning, infrastructure, culture, education, health, social services, economic development, and government effectiveness. One part of this plan was to create “green zones” that consisted of the most damaged area. (As shown in Figure 4) This land would be parkland in the future. The neighborhoods most targeted for this parkland were the areas below sea level that are most prone to flooding. The parks would be an area that would catch water when there are floods without damaging any structures. The problem with this is that the people that once lived in those “green” areas would have to find a new place to live, which might possibly not be in New Orleans. At first, the Bring New Orleans Back Commission had a short four month schedule, but it turned out to consist of long term projects.This plan had three distinct approaches to planning the neighborhoods. First, they would look at immediate opportunity areas. Figure 5 has a map of those targeted areas with little flooding. Second, was to plan the neighborhood areas that were most heavily flooded and could possible be the most challenging. Lastly, they would tackle the infill development areas. This consisted of areas with the most potential because there was already blight in the area.[3] This included housing, commercial and industrial zones.
In the BNOB plan, there was a commitment to historic preservation of the historic district in order to maintain the city’s character. The plan stated that funding for this would come from federal and state tax credits. The BNOB plan also asked for different lines of defense against future flooding. This included; regional and coastal wetland restoration, a light rail network to connect to neighboring cities and the airport, parks in all neighborhoods, and “neutral ground” and would also function as open and park spaces.[3] One of the main pressing goals was to create a sustainable future for the city of New Orleans.
In April 2006, the Lambert Plan was launched. Paul Lambert and Shelia Danzey headed the plan, and hired a team of architects and planners to work on housing matters in the city. Paul Lambert used a bottom-up approach to planning that would target distressed neighborhoods.[3] Another plan for New Orleans is the Unified Plan. This plan stated that the city would be rebuilt as it previously was. This includes building in low lying areas that were heavily flooded. There are three major parts that make up the Unified New Orleans Plan. First is that it is unified, hence the name. This means that once all the planning has taken place for each neighborhood, everything will come together in one final document. Next is that it will respect the previous plans already in place (those discussed above). Lastly, government agencies are not part of this process which means it will not have to deal with as much politics.
One big question when discussing redevelopment and rebuilding is funding. This is a major issue that had to be dealt with after Hurricane Katrina. Government money and aid from FEMA did not seem to come in quick enough to really put plans into actions, so private entities helped. One major contributor to rebuilding after Katrina was the Rockerfeller Foundation. This foundation was working with the Greater New Orleans Foundation to help with the relief effort right after Katrina hit. On September 8, 2005 the Rockerfeller Foundation provided $3 million to aid displaced residents.[3] From this donation, the Greater New Orleans Foundation for Katrina Disaster Relief was able to hire planners Donna Fraiche and David Veolker. Later, the Rockerfeller Foundation donated an additional $3.5 million to rebuild. This was a great contribution to the effort because the whole rebuilding process would cost about $7.9 million. With the donations from the Rockerfeller foundation, the Bring New Orleans Back Commission was eventually dismantled. Each plan that was enacted was due to something that was lacking in the previous plans. Planners hoped for the newer plan to solve all the problems, but as we can see this was not the case. One of the major obstacles with rebuilding New Orleans was, and still is finding the funding for the proposed projects.
Social Equity:
Hurricane Katrina impacted all New Orleans residents, but some folks were disproportionately affected. The poor and largely the African American population lost the most when Katrina hit. In 2000, New Orleans had 28% of its residents living below the poverty line which made it the 6th poorest city in the nation. 67% of the population in New Orleans was African American and of that population, 84% of them lived in poverty.[5] The first thing that went wrong was that when there was a mandatory evacuation from the city, 29% of the residents did not have cars and largely depended on public transportation.[3] The city did not have mass transit system leading out of New Orleans . Figure 6 shows the Superdome after Hurricane Katrina. There was leaking in the roof and the electricity and water were not working while people were still inside. Consequently, many people, including the ill and elderly, died because of flooding and a very late response from any assistance. Residents that stayed in the city waited days before food and water were brought to them.[6] This slow response brought about great controversy because of the large number of African Americans that were in the area. While people were stranded at the Superdome, government officials and the President were going about their days as if nothing had happened in New Orleans. Even the city’s mayor was see on vacation in Jamaica during crucial planning times.[3]
After people were evacuated and planning for the future was taking place, people were not shy to criticize what was going on. People called it “Katrina Cleansing” because they were trying to remove Blacks from the city.[3] There were not any people deliberately saying that they do not want the African American population back in the city, but their actions were saying it. City officials’ first concern was with rebuilding the areas that had the least damage, which were located in the Garden district and the French Quarter. These spaces were where the majority of tourists go, and are where the wealthier residents live. Parish (city) leaders wanted to assist homeowners first because they were the most critical investors that would stabilize neighborhoods.[3] This left renters, businesses, and infrastructure out for a while.
The Lower Ninth Ward was the area of the city that had major flooding and also housed the majority of the poor residents. Planners were talking about not developing these areas and making it parkland which meant that those residents would lose their homes. On the map, the areas that would be turned into parkland had a green circle around it, but only Lakeview, a largely white neighborhood, did not have any green circles indicating parkland.[3] Not only was this a problem, but if they did wish to return, rents were more expensive than they had been pre-Katrina. Overall the cost of living was higher after 2005, with rents up 39% and electricity rates up by 20%. Not only did this make it hard for residents to return, but there was a lack of jobs. Unemployment was already high before Katrina, but after it was 7.2%, while the National average was 4.6%.[3] Overall, African Americans and other people of color were largely discriminated against when planning post-Katrina.
Hurricane Katrina impacted all New Orleans residents, but some folks were disproportionately affected. The poor and largely the African American population lost the most when Katrina hit. In 2000, New Orleans had 28% of its residents living below the poverty line which made it the 6th poorest city in the nation. 67% of the population in New Orleans was African American and of that population, 84% of them lived in poverty.[5] The first thing that went wrong was that when there was a mandatory evacuation from the city, 29% of the residents did not have cars and largely depended on public transportation.[3] The city did not have mass transit system leading out of New Orleans . Figure 6 shows the Superdome after Hurricane Katrina. There was leaking in the roof and the electricity and water were not working while people were still inside. Consequently, many people, including the ill and elderly, died because of flooding and a very late response from any assistance. Residents that stayed in the city waited days before food and water were brought to them.[6] This slow response brought about great controversy because of the large number of African Americans that were in the area. While people were stranded at the Superdome, government officials and the President were going about their days as if nothing had happened in New Orleans. Even the city’s mayor was see on vacation in Jamaica during crucial planning times.[3]
After people were evacuated and planning for the future was taking place, people were not shy to criticize what was going on. People called it “Katrina Cleansing” because they were trying to remove Blacks from the city.[3] There were not any people deliberately saying that they do not want the African American population back in the city, but their actions were saying it. City officials’ first concern was with rebuilding the areas that had the least damage, which were located in the Garden district and the French Quarter. These spaces were where the majority of tourists go, and are where the wealthier residents live. Parish (city) leaders wanted to assist homeowners first because they were the most critical investors that would stabilize neighborhoods.[3] This left renters, businesses, and infrastructure out for a while.
The Lower Ninth Ward was the area of the city that had major flooding and also housed the majority of the poor residents. Planners were talking about not developing these areas and making it parkland which meant that those residents would lose their homes. On the map, the areas that would be turned into parkland had a green circle around it, but only Lakeview, a largely white neighborhood, did not have any green circles indicating parkland.[3] Not only was this a problem, but if they did wish to return, rents were more expensive than they had been pre-Katrina. Overall the cost of living was higher after 2005, with rents up 39% and electricity rates up by 20%. Not only did this make it hard for residents to return, but there was a lack of jobs. Unemployment was already high before Katrina, but after it was 7.2%, while the National average was 4.6%.[3] Overall, African Americans and other people of color were largely discriminated against when planning post-Katrina.
Sustainable Development:
When groups were trying to rebuild post-Katrina, one main concert was how to make these buildings more sustainable. Some non-profit groups took this into their own hands in order to build shelters for people, while not having a great impact on the Earth. The Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans was one of the first groups to come out and start building homes with green infrastructure. One of the projects the Preservation Resource Center worked on was “Operation Comeback”. This program was a way to restore historic homes in New Orleans with intent for people to purchase them whether they were already homeowners, or would be a homeowner for the first time.[7] This program was started in 1987, and was always focused on historic preservation, but after Hurricane Katrina, they had a lot more on their plates. Still with the focus of historic preservation, there was more ground to cover, and more potential first time homeowners. In 2008, this program enacted a campaign called “Adopt a House”. This gave community members, and non-residents a chance to donate money for Katrina relief in the form of preserving the historic neighborhoods. These donations were taken in order to keep the prices of the renovated houses low in order to ensure equity for returning residents.
Another project that took place in the Lower Ninth Ward was Preserving Green. This project was also part of the Preservation Resource Center and was focused on restoring blighted areas. While doing this, they would try to implement sustainable building techniques. Rebuilding Together New Orleans was another sustainable development non-profit group. This group targeted displaced Katrina victims in order to get them back into their homes. One major part of development that this group would do is creating an environmentally friendly home. Some things they did was implement energy efficient fixtures and use reclaimed and sustainable building materials.[7] Four years after this project began, they were the largest non-profit organization in New Orleans that targeted home renovation. One thing that makes historic preservation so sustainable is that it uses what they already have. The land was already developed on and some materials can be reused.
One project that had participants from all over the country was a program called Cotton From Blue to Green. This project was sponsored by Cotton brand and began in 2006 to collect old jeans, and turn that into insulation for homes. By the end of the first year, there were enough donations to insulate 30 homes for the Hurricane Katrina victims.[7] Other organizations that took part in this project were Habitat for Humanity who partnered with big companies like GAP. This is a continuing program that is working to create a green world.
When groups were trying to rebuild post-Katrina, one main concert was how to make these buildings more sustainable. Some non-profit groups took this into their own hands in order to build shelters for people, while not having a great impact on the Earth. The Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans was one of the first groups to come out and start building homes with green infrastructure. One of the projects the Preservation Resource Center worked on was “Operation Comeback”. This program was a way to restore historic homes in New Orleans with intent for people to purchase them whether they were already homeowners, or would be a homeowner for the first time.[7] This program was started in 1987, and was always focused on historic preservation, but after Hurricane Katrina, they had a lot more on their plates. Still with the focus of historic preservation, there was more ground to cover, and more potential first time homeowners. In 2008, this program enacted a campaign called “Adopt a House”. This gave community members, and non-residents a chance to donate money for Katrina relief in the form of preserving the historic neighborhoods. These donations were taken in order to keep the prices of the renovated houses low in order to ensure equity for returning residents.
Another project that took place in the Lower Ninth Ward was Preserving Green. This project was also part of the Preservation Resource Center and was focused on restoring blighted areas. While doing this, they would try to implement sustainable building techniques. Rebuilding Together New Orleans was another sustainable development non-profit group. This group targeted displaced Katrina victims in order to get them back into their homes. One major part of development that this group would do is creating an environmentally friendly home. Some things they did was implement energy efficient fixtures and use reclaimed and sustainable building materials.[7] Four years after this project began, they were the largest non-profit organization in New Orleans that targeted home renovation. One thing that makes historic preservation so sustainable is that it uses what they already have. The land was already developed on and some materials can be reused.
One project that had participants from all over the country was a program called Cotton From Blue to Green. This project was sponsored by Cotton brand and began in 2006 to collect old jeans, and turn that into insulation for homes. By the end of the first year, there were enough donations to insulate 30 homes for the Hurricane Katrina victims.[7] Other organizations that took part in this project were Habitat for Humanity who partnered with big companies like GAP. This is a continuing program that is working to create a green world.
Footnotes
[1] Nelson, Marla , Renia Ehrenfeucht , and Shirley Laska. "Planning, Plans, and People: Professional Expertise, Local Knowledge, and Governmental Action in Post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans."Cityscape 9.3 (2007): 23-52. JSTOR. Web. 26 July 2013.
[2] Ford, Kristina. "Cities as Planners See Them ." The trouble with city planning: what New Orleans can teach us. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010. 17. Print.
[3] Olshansky, Robert B., and Laurie Johnson.Clear as mud: planning for the rebuilding of New Orleans. Chicago: American Planning Association, 2010. Print.
[4] "Emergency Support Function #14 – Long-Term Community Recovery Annex."FEMA. FEMA, n.d. Web. 26 July 2013. <www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-esf-14.pdf>.
[5] Bates, Kristin Ann, and Richelle S. Swan.Through the eye of Katrina: social justice in the United States. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2007. Print.
[6] When the levees broke. Dir. Spike Lee. Perf. Ray Nagin, Douglas Brinkley. HBO Video, 2006. Film.
[7] Benfield, Kaid . "New Orleanians, rebuilding with sustainability (NOLA resilience Part 3) | Kaid Benfield's Blog | Switchboard, from NRDC." Home | Switchboard, from NRDC. N.p., 13 May 2011. Web. 30 July 2013. <http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kbenfield/rea
[8] "COTTON. FROM BLUE TO GREEN.™ Program History." Cotton. From Blue to Green.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://www.cottonfrombluetogreen.org/cotton-from-blue-to-green-program-history/>.
[2] Ford, Kristina. "Cities as Planners See Them ." The trouble with city planning: what New Orleans can teach us. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010. 17. Print.
[3] Olshansky, Robert B., and Laurie Johnson.Clear as mud: planning for the rebuilding of New Orleans. Chicago: American Planning Association, 2010. Print.
[4] "Emergency Support Function #14 – Long-Term Community Recovery Annex."FEMA. FEMA, n.d. Web. 26 July 2013. <www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-esf-14.pdf>.
[5] Bates, Kristin Ann, and Richelle S. Swan.Through the eye of Katrina: social justice in the United States. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2007. Print.
[6] When the levees broke. Dir. Spike Lee. Perf. Ray Nagin, Douglas Brinkley. HBO Video, 2006. Film.
[7] Benfield, Kaid . "New Orleanians, rebuilding with sustainability (NOLA resilience Part 3) | Kaid Benfield's Blog | Switchboard, from NRDC." Home | Switchboard, from NRDC. N.p., 13 May 2011. Web. 30 July 2013. <http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/kbenfield/rea
[8] "COTTON. FROM BLUE TO GREEN.™ Program History." Cotton. From Blue to Green.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 July 2013. <http://www.cottonfrombluetogreen.org/cotton-from-blue-to-green-program-history/>.